TJ 1235 
.68 
1901 



tr ? ■*»* .?/•/* 


Grimshaw 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

"f J 12.3 5 • 

Cliap._ _Copyright No._ 

Shelf 

- 1 \ 90 \ 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
























I 



SAW-FILING 


AND 

MANAGEMENT of SAWS 


A PRACTICAL, TREATISE ON FILING, 
GUMMING, SWAGING, HAMMERING, 
AND THE BRAZING OF BAND SAWS, 
THE SPEED, WORK, AND POWER TO 
RUN CIRCULAR SAWS, ETC., ETC. 




BY 

ROBERT GRIMSHAW, M.E. 

AUTHOR OF “STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM,” 
“ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM,” ETC., 
ETC. 


A NEW EDITION—REVISED AND ENLARGED 
ILLUSTRA TED 


NEW YORK: 

NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 
132 Nassau Street. 








Library of Conqreaa 

Copies ^eoeived 


FEB 8 1901 



Copyright entry 

, / y ^ f 



SECONDCOPY 


Copyright 

1882 

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 

Copyright 

1901 

By NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 


\ 














D 


PREFACE. 


This book is designed as a practical aid 
to those who use saws for any purpose. 
While, as its title implies, it treats princi¬ 
pally of saw-filing, it also goes into the 
questions of gumming, spring-setting, and 
swaging. The author has tried to bring it 
up to present successful usage, and will be 
glad to receive from practical sawyers and 
others for future editions, questions, sugges¬ 
tions, and information bearing on the sub¬ 
ject. 

New edition enlarged January, 1901. 
















































CONTENTS. 


Preface. 

Introduction. 

Classification of Saws. 

Rip-Saws : Hand, Sash, Circular, and Band 

Cross-cuts : Hand, Two-man, Circular. 

Elements of the Teeth.. 

Tooth Length. . 

Spacing of Teeth. 

Angle and Rake. 

Side Angle or Fleam. 

Choice of Teeth for Special Purposes. 

Gumming or Gulleting. . 

Reversible Blade Gummer. 

Mixter’s Rotary. 

Kind of Set. 

Bent Set ; Operation of Bending for Set... 

Spread Set ; Swaging. 

Amount of Set. 

Gullet or Throat. 

Top Jointing. 

Side Jointing. 

Choice of a Saw. 

Frequency of Filing. 

Hand vs. Machine Filing and Setting. 

Filing Clamps. 

Files.. 

Operation of Filing. 

Circular Saw Teeth. 


PAGK 

. 3 


9 

10 

11 

12 

14 

15 

16 
18 
19 
21 
22 
22 
22 
24 


33 

34 

35 

35 

36 

36 

37 
39 
41 
45 
50 


5 































CONTENTS. 


6 

PAGIfr 

Hints and Wrinkles. 50 

Styles of Circular Saw Teeth. 57 

Spring vs. Spread Set. 60 

Cleaner Gauge.... . 61 

Gu miners. 61 

Crotch Swages. 62 

To Straighten a Circular Saw. 67 

Choice of a Hand Saw. 68 

Comparison of Circular Saw Teeth. 60 

Emery Wheel vs. Grindstone. 72 

How to Use Emery Wheels. 73 

Sizes and Shapes of Emery Wheels. 74 

Hardness of Emery Wheels. 77 

Brazing Band Saws. 78 

Speed of Circular Saws. 79 

How to Hammer Circular Saws ... 83 

Horse Power to Rim Circular Saws.92 



















INTRODUCTION. 


There is no more sense in using a dull saw 
than in shaving with a dull razor. 

It is a great deal easier to keep a saw sharp 
by frequent light file-touches, than to let it get 
so dull as to need a long-continued filing down, 
after it gets so dulled as to refuse to work. 

The saving in power, by using a sharp saw, 
is very great. It has never yet been measured 
in power-saws, and is hardly measurable in 
hand-saws ; but it is without doubt consider¬ 
able. 

By using sharp saws, thinner blades may be 
used than where the teeth are dull; because 
the duller the saw the more power required to 
drive it through the wood, and the more strain 
on each tooth separately, and on the blade as a 
whole. 

For the same reason, longer teeth may be 
used where they are sharp, than where they 
are dull. 

The advantage of using sharp teeth is great¬ 
est in those saws in which the strain of cutting 
tends to deform the blade—as in all “ push- 
cut ” straight saws and in circulars. 

7 









, 














































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* * • 















































SAW-FILING. 


Classification of Saws. —There are four 
general classes of saws—reciprocating, circular, 
band, and cylinder ; * and four classes of teeth 
—the V or cross-cut, the or ripping 

tooth, the M or W, and the hook ; with their 
variations and combinations. 

Each of these requires special treatment, as 
distinguished from the others, and particular 
adaptation to conditions of saw, speed, thick¬ 
ness, and character of material and work, etc. 

Saws for use in fibrous materials, such as 
wood, act in two ways—for ripping, or cutting 
with the grain, and for cross-cutting or divid¬ 
ing at right angles (or thereabouts) to the 
fiber. 

In ripping fibrous material, each fiber is 
severed by each tooth only once at a stroke, but 
many times in successive strokes ; while in 
cross-cutting, each fiber is cut off in two places 
at a stroke, and never again cut off in that 
line. 

* For fuller classification of saw-blades, see “Grim- 
shaw on Saws,” page 12. 



10 


SAW-FI LING. 


Rip-Saws. —The rip-saw, having for its duty 
severing each fiber once at a time in its length, 
is generally given acute teeth, well raked, and 
as it can act more like a mortising chisel than 
can the cross-cut, it is given more gullet, be¬ 
cause it will take greater feed per tooth. 

The hand rip-saw is longer and stouter than 
the hand cross-cut, being from 28" to 30" long 
as against 26" for the cross-cut, and having only 
3 to 5 teeth to the inch through the greater 
part of its length, as against 5 to 12.* 

The sash-saw for ripping, f (mill-saw) is 
about the most abused tool that man uses, get¬ 
ting the worst shaped teeth, and being allowed 
to get the dullest, because the operator does not 
feel that it runs hard ; nor does he see if it 
is wrongly toothed, as the mulay, the circular, 
or the band would clearly show by running 
crooked. The teeth have seldom enough 
“ rake ” or front pitch, nor enough gullet ; 
they arc, too, frequently given excessive and 
irregular set. 

The mulay rip-saw \ gets better care than the 
sash. The teeth are about the same. 

For various forms and styles of hand-saws and 
handles therefor, see “ Grimshaw on Saws,” pages 18, 
30, 33 to 35. 

f See same work, pages 21 to 23 and 33. 
i See same work, page 20. 


SAW-FI LING. 


11 


The circular rip-saw responds better than 
any other to skill in toothing and mounting, 
and to ease in running. Its teeth should be 
widely spaced and very hooking, with plenty of 
gullet to take out the chips (not dust) which 
it should make. 

The band-saw * is never used for cross-cut¬ 
ting, except when cutting scroll-work, and may 
generally be treated as a rip-saw. It requires 
special regularity in shape and set of teeth to 
prevent it from breaking and from running into 
the work. 

The Cross-Cut Saw f has for its duty 
severing each fiber crosswise ; and in order to 
prevent pinching or binding, it divides each fiber 
in two places at once, leaving a path or 
“kerf” for the blade to run in and the ma¬ 
terial to fall out through. 

If you undertook to divide a board in two, 
crosswise, by successive knife-cuts, you would 
soon find the necessity for having a groove at 
least as wide as the thickness of the blade ; and 
this could be accomplished only by severing 
each fiber twice; making two parallel cuts 

* “ Grimshaw on Saws,” page 83. 
f For various styles of cross-cuts saws and of handles 
therefor, see same work, pages 37 to 48 of 2d edi¬ 
tion. 


12 


SAW-FILING. 


between which the material was removed to 
leave the “ kerf.” 

The action of the cross-cut saw is analogous 
—it makes two parallel sawings, and removes 
the short lengths between them. 

Ordinarily, every other tooth is beveled to 
right and to left, so as to help make the right 
hand or the left hand score. The front view 
of a rightly tiled straight cross-cut, with teeth 
beveled to right and left alternately, should be 

W as in Fig. 1, and the filing should be 
so accurate that a needle could be slid 
along the groove left between or 
formed by the beveled tooth edges.. 
But instead of making a kerf having 
a bottom of ridged section, the re¬ 
sult is the crumbling out of the ma¬ 
terial as fast as the scoring progresses, 
and the kerf is left square bottomed. 
It is the outside edge of each tooth 
that does the cutting. 


The Elements of a Saw Tooth * are its 

face, point, back, and gullet. 

Teeth vary in length, thickness, spacing, 
rake, amount and kind of set, fleam, outline 
and direction, and in depth and outline of throat 
or “ gullet. ” 


* See “ Grimshaw on Saws,” pages 12 to 20. 

















SAW-FILING. 


13 


They have for offices cutting, cleaning, and 
planing. 

They are either solid (in one piece with the 
plate of the saw), or in¬ 
serted. 

The cutting edge of a 
saw may have all teeth of 
a kind, or several kinds in 
regular order. 

Teeth may be simple or 
compound.* 

The gullet may be angu¬ 
lar, notched, or rounded. 

Whatever be the style of 
saw or of tooth, it is im¬ 
perative that all teeth of a 
kind shall be of uniform 
outline and dimensions— 
except in those cases (as 
“ increm ent toothed 
saws ”) where the teeth 
purposely vary in size in 
regular progression.! 




XI 





r 

t , 

ds 

z: 

< 

o 

r 

i__ 

Cc: 

5 



* Various styles of compound and special teeth are 
shown and described in the author’s work on Saws, pages 
12 to 20, 28, 38 to 48, 57 to 61, 64. 71, 73 to 81, 87, 109 
to 119, 128, 138, 157, 170 to 177, and 204. 
f Grimshaw on Saws, pages 20 to 23, 28, 34, and 59. 



















14 


SAW-FILING. 


Tooth Length. —The softer the material 

the greater 
the length o f 
tooth a mong 
materials of the 
same general 
class. Long 
teeth give plenty 
of clearance for 
sawdust; hence 
are good for soft, 
wet, or fibrous 
woods. 

The length of 
cleaner teeth 
may be regu¬ 
lated by a gauge 
such as that 
shown in Fig. 58 
When a cross¬ 
cut needs more 
cleaners, they 
may be made by 
filing down cut¬ 
ting teeth, as 
shown in Fig. 3, 
taking care to 
bring them below the cutting line. 
















SAW-FILING. 


15 


The thinner and longer the teeth, the greater 
the importance of having even, and not exces¬ 
sive, set; because a thick or a short tooth will, 
more readily than a thin or a long one, with¬ 
stand a tendency to spring into the cut. 

The difficulty of springing into the cut is 
met with only in sawing fibrous (although per¬ 
haps we may add granular) materials. It is 
greater with teeth having excessive rake and 
“ fleam,’’ (or side angle) than with those of 
straight pitch, filed scpiare across. 

Tooth Space. —The following table gives 
lengths, sizes, and spaces of teeth of hand-saws : 


NAME. 


LENGTH. 


GAUGE. POINTS TO INCH. 


'C -3 

s v 


c3 C 


f Hand. 

I Rip. 

Panel. . .. 
Compass.* . 
Keyhole.*.. 


26" 

28" to 30" 

14" to 24" 
10" to 20" 
7" to 9" 


s r 

03 'D ! 

~ jjj j Tenon. 

| Miter. 

2(3 I 

x l 


6" to 18" 
20" to 30" 


19 

18 

22 to 20 
16 
12 


5 to 13 
Heel, 3 to 5 
Point, 6 to 8 
8 to 12 


22 to 20 
20 to 19 


11 to 15 
10 to 11 


Hand rip-saws may have coarser teeth at the 
heel than at the point, so that fine teeth com¬ 
mence and coarse ones finish the cut. 

♦Narrow blades for curve-sawing. 
















16 


SAW-FILING. 


For soft wood, band-saws should have a 
tooth-space one-half the blade width, and depth 
one-fifth. For hard wood, space one-third, and 
depth one-fifth. 



Angle and Rake.—The generic angle of 
saw-teeth is 60°. Teeth of any other angle can¬ 
not be filed well without a special file, as can 
those shown in Figs. 4, 5, in which, although 



the rake is different, the angle is the same. 

The rake of a rip-saw is in front; that of a 
cross-cut at the side. 
















































SAW-FILING. 


17 


Rip-saws take more inclination than cross¬ 
cuts. 

Teeth with great front rake tend to spring in, 
especially in hard wood.* 

More rake can be put on a circular than on a 
rectilinear saw, partly because it runs faster, 
hence can stand it. 

The harder the wood the less rake there 
should be. 

For soft wood, teeth as at A, Fig. 6, are 



B 

Fig. 6. 


good ; for hard and knotty stuff, B (60° equally 
pitched front and back). For varied work C 
(40° equally divided). 

The teeth shown in Fig. 7 have excessive 
front rake, and, while keen cutting, tend to dig 
in. Fig. 8 shows various degrees of rake, and 
the arrows show the direction of the strain 
put upon them by the work. In Fig. 9, the 
points of the teeth have considerable rake ; but 


* See ‘‘ Saws,” pages 14 to 16. 



18 


SAW-FILING. 


the main portions are so formed as to resist the 
strain of work. 


Side Angle or Fleam.—Referring to Figs. 



TinllQiiiiiiiiiH 


Fig. 7.—Great Front Rake. 

10 to 44 :—for metal saws, the file is held 90° in 
both vertical and horizontal angles; for hard 



woods, 90° to 80° horizontally ; for soft woods, 
70° to 60° and less horizontally; 35° to 30° 
vertically. 









SAW-FILING. 


19 


Shingle saws should be filed square across. 

Fleam or side angle is better for soft woods 
and those free from knots than for hemlock or 
spruce. 

Fig. 10 shows, greatly magnified, the teeth 
of a hand rip-saw which has both bent-set, and 
fleam or side angle. The arrows show the 



Fig. 9.—Strong Teeth, with very Raking Points. 


direction in which the strain of work comes 
upon the teeth set and fleamed to the right 
side, and those bent and fleamed to the left. 
As this is at right angles to the cutting edge of 
the tooth, it will be seen that the greater the 
fleam the greater the tendency to spring in to 
the work ; and as the tendency to spring in is 
also increased by bent set, the two should not 
be given together. 

Choice of Teeth. —With the choice of teeth 






20 


SAW-FILING. 


for special purposes, this work will have little 
to do ; this matter being treated in special de¬ 
tail in the author’s work on Saws.* 

Circular-saw teeth are generally more distant 
and more inclined, and have more set, than rec¬ 
tilinear. 

Pruning-saws may have half-moon or briar 
teeth. 

The more valuable the material and the 



Fig. 10.—Spring Set and Side Angle. 


greater the cost of power, the thinner the 
teeth and the less the set should be ; although 
in general the harder the material, the thicker 
the teeth, to stand the greater strain. 

The softer the material, the more depth, 
“ fleam,” “ hook,” and “ rake,” may be given. 
The more fibrous and porous the material, 
*See pages 12, 18, 65, 234, of 2d edition of that work. 












SAW-FILING. 


21 


the greater may be the spacing, and the greater 
the necessity of deep throat or gullet. 

Gumming may be done with punches, rotat¬ 
ing steel cutters, or 
emery-wheels. E 

In Fig. 11, the a 
dotted line B shows 
Avhere the point first 
wears ; CCC, how it 
should be filed back ; 
but too often, on ac¬ 
count of the long sur¬ 
face, and the sharp 
corner at /, the fil- Fig. ll.—Tooth Wear and Gumming. 

ing is done on the top. Filing back in the line 
CCC, the diameter is diminished only to F> 
while from the top you 
work it down to D. 

In Fig. 12, the same 
tooth is shown, gummed 
by a machine, and leaving 
but little underfil- 
ing. 

Fig. la.— Machine Gumming. The higher the speed, 
the greater necessity for rounding the gul¬ 
let. 

Band-saws particularly require rounded gul¬ 
lets. 







22 


SAW-FILING. 


In Fig. 13, tooth A is shown to need gullet- 
ing ; tooth B is all right. 

Fig. 15 shows a very bad 
job of gumming. 

Reversible Blade 
Gummer. — A gummer 
for circulars, with the 
blades reversible and de¬ 
tachable, as shown in Fig. 
P 14,* has the advantage 
| that both cutting edges 
> of the blades may be 
| sharpened at once, and 
| when one edge is dulled 
I the other may be turned ; 
f besides which the gum- 
| mer cuts practically the 
5 same sized circle all the 
b time. 

Mixter’s Rotary 
Gummer. — The same 
firm makes Mixter’s gum¬ 
ming machine, to use 
these cutters. (See Fig. 
16.) 

Kind of Set. —Set is of 
two kinds—“ spring ” or 
*R. L. Orr & Co., Pittsburg. 





SAW-FILING. 


23 

































































































































































































































































24 


SAW-FILING. 


“bent” set, and “ swaged ” or “spread” 
set. 

Bent set teeth cut upon only one side ; spread 
set teeth cut on both sides, unless they are 
either bent or “ sheared ” as well as swaged. 

Each method of setting has its advantages 
and disadvantages, according to the conditions. 

Of course, bent set teeth have more of this 



Fig. 15.—Very Bad Gumming. 

tendency than swaged ones, and the greater the 
bend, the more tendency to spring in. 

A swaged tooth, being supported on both 
sides, is less subject to side strains than one 
which is bent for set. 

Bending for Set may be done by blows or by 
leverage—the latter including bending by cams. 
Either may be accomplished by a machine or by 
simple hand tools. 


SAW-FILING 
















































































































































































































































































































































































26 


SAW-FILING. 


To set by blows, without a machine, the 
blade must be gripped close to the ends of the 
teeth, and the blow struck quickly with a light 
hammer—the blows being as uniform in force 
as possible, in order to bend all teeth alike. 

Avoid either too short or too long set ; the 
former causing too sharp bending of the tooth 
near the point, and the latter (the less evil of 
the two) requiring more force to effect. 

Where bent set is effected by hammer blows, 
it is by many thought best to slightly overset, 
and then lightly correct the excess by gentle 
taps, in the case of large saws, noting the 
exact and proper amount of projection by 
means of a simple sheet-steel set-gauge. 

For large teeth, there may be used special 
set levers, having two set screws—one to 
accommodate the instrument to various thick¬ 
nesses of saw plate, and the other to regu¬ 
late, as a stop, the amount of bending. 

Small teeth may readily be bent for set by 
a simple notch in the end of a file. 

Cam sets produce a bent set that is neces¬ 
sarily the same for all the teeth of each 
saw. 

Figs. 19 and 20 show cam sets for circular 
and band saws, devised by C. E. Grandy, ot 
South Barton, Yt. 


SAW-FILING. 


27 


Spread Set may be ef¬ 
fected by direct hammer 
blows on the teeth, or by 
“crotch punches ” or dies 
applied to the tooth ends 
and struck by a hammer. 

Large mill-saw teeth may 
be upset by blows of a flat¬ 
faced hammer, using the 
firmly-held butt of an axe 
as an anvil or counter; 
but this method is crude, 
and at best unsatisfactory. 
The operation may be 
shortened and facilitated, 
and the work made more 
perfect and uniform, by 
having a die of suitable 
outline and faces, into 
which the metal of the 
tooth-point is spread by 
smart hammer blows on 
the instrument. 

Usually, these upsets 
have two notches, one 
merely to spread the tooth- 
point, and the other to limit 



Fig. 17.—Hand Set, 






28 


SAW-FILING. 


its side dimensions and give the cutting edge, 
when desired, a slightly concave 
form. 

There being some difficulty in 
properly hardening the angles of 
single-piece crotch punches, so as 
to preserve the original straight 
form,* they are now best made 
^ with a saw-cut in the angle, the 
® metal being kept to size and form 
§ by means of a strong steel band, 
g which drives the walls of the crotch 
| hard together, and gives a straight 
'g line, which may be renewed when 
| worn by taking off the band, dress¬ 
ed ing out the cut, and driving the 
06 walls together again. 

.a» In swaging or upsetting teeth, 
care should be taken not to make 
the corners too sharp.* There 
should be enough metal back of 
them to hold them out firm with¬ 
out breaking off ; and this in no 
wise affects the sharpness of the 
front of the tooth, which is the 
chisel-edge that does the work, 

* The hardening fluid does not always reach into the 
angle, where the greatest hardness is required. 


SAW-FILING. 29 

and which may be straight,--convex or concave, 
at the option of the sawyer. 

The ideal swaged tooth, looking only at the 
question of strength of corners, would be 



somewhat like Fig. 21; but as it would be 
impossible to swage cold-tempered steel by 
hand into such an outline, the form shown 
in Fig. 22, which is a possible one, should be 






30 


SAW-FILING. 


aimed at. The form shown in Fig. 23 has 
extremely weak corners, and if one of them 
crumbles off, the other gets all the work, and 
is liable to go too. If both go, then the tooth 



Fig. 20.—Cam Set for Bands. 

behind has an extra load thrown upon it, and 
so on. The finer the feed, the greater the 
proportion of work thrown on the tooth cor¬ 
ners, as compared with the front face. With 
very coarse feed, the action of the tooth is 





SAW-FILING. 


31 


more like that of a mortising chisel, getting a 
full cut all across its face; so that if the 
corners were gone, the chisel would tear 
through anyhow, leaving to the next tooth 
behind the duty of trimming square the ragged 
edges of the cut. 

If it were practicable to swage and file teeth 
into such a shape m 
as is indicated in I 
Fig. 24, in which ] 
there is a cutting |j 
edge at each side 
as well as in front, 
the greatest possi- j 
ble smoothness of 
cut would be at¬ 
tained. 

Such a tooth 
would have a strong 
corner, well sup- Figs. 21,22, 23. 

ported from behind, and from this there 
might be a taper, as in Fig. 21, or else the 
plate behind might be of even thickness, with 
a slight sweep as a strengthening curve. 

The Gridley tooth has both spring and 
spread set and “ shear.” (See Fig. 25.) 

Various devices for spreading and bending 
teeth are shown in “ Saws,” pages 127, 180, 
258, &c. 






























32 


SAW-FILING. 


In swaging, the “upset” tool should be so 
held as to deliver the blow in a line with the 
face of the tooth. If inclined, so that the 
blow comes in the direction of the back of the 
tooth, or further out, there is danger of a crack 
starting in the gullet, especially in frosty 
weather. 



Fig 2U.—Leslie Swage. 


Fig. 26 shows the Leslie “ solid swage,” 
made by R. L. Orr, of Pittsburg, and which is 
claimed to be able to equalize the lugs of such 
a tooth as Fig. 23, by drawing the metal over 
to the desired side. This swage has what is 
called a “ three-fold convex surface,” and is 
provided with guides for regulating its exact 
position on the saw, and hence the shape of 
the point which it gives the tooth. The 
“ three-fold convex ” surface is formed by the 



SAW-FILING. 


33 


intersection of two right cylinders, its property 
being to spread the metal of the tooth 
in both directions from the center, 
at right angles from the body of the 
saw, leaving the tooth curved on the 
face, back, and edge. A light file touch 
is then used to bring the edge straight 
if desired. 

In drawing over a tooth to change 
the lead of a saw, with this swage, the 
screws provided for the purpose are 
set out so as to cant the swage on the 
saw, w r ith the result of making the 
blow come on one side of the tooth, and crowd 
the metal towards the other. 

Amount of Set. —Circular saws re¬ 
quire more set than rectilinear, because 
they run faster and are apt to wab¬ 
ble. 

Ice-saws should have excessive set, to 
prevent clogging. 

There should be very little set to 
veneer saws, by reason of the great cost 
of the material. 

The more gummy the material, the 
greater the need of “ set ” or side 
clearance. 

Small, narrow blades of jig-saws should be 




















34 


SAW-FILING. 


eased off with the file, a gauge or so in thick¬ 
ness, if not already made so. 

Band and jig-saws require more set for short 
curves than for those of long radius. 

A tapered jig-saw blade is shown in Fig. 27. 
Such a blade needs neither spread nor spring- 
set to its teeth, but will keep cool in hard 



wood, and cut short curves without bind¬ 
ing. 

Leading in or out of the log is very often 
caused by giving more fleam or more set on 
one side than on the other. 

Gullet, or Throat. —The greater the feed, 
the greater the gullet needed. 

Spaulding’s rule for throat room of circulars 
is to double the number of cubic inches of 







SAW-FILING. 


35 


wood removed at one revolution, and divide 
by the number of teeth, to get the required 
number of square inches of gullet per tooth. 

Insufficient gullet, throat or chamber, causes 
the saw to choke and heat, the rim to become 
too large, and the plate to run 46 snaky.” 

The gullet should be rounding, as in Figs. 
29 and 30, and not angular, as in Figs. 31 
and 32, in which case cracks may start ; 
and in any instance sharp corners are 
the hardest on files. 

“ Top Jointing ” (also called 
“rounding” when applied to circular 
saws) is bringing the points of all the 
teeth down to the same line, so that no 
one tooth shall project lengthwise be¬ 
yond the others, and thereby receive 
undue strain. It is generally performed 
with a flat or “mill” file ; although it 
may be done by a plane rubber of emery 
or corundum, or a whet-stone. It is best 
effected witli the saw mounted in a special but 
simple jointing frame, or its equivalent.* It 
is a very necessary operation. 

Side Jointing not only gives each tooth its 
exact share of work, but prevents scratching 



* “Saws,” page 248. 


36 


SAW-FILING. 



of the lumber caused by too great side pro¬ 
jection of a tooth, and what is about as un¬ 
sightly, “ ridging,” caused by a tooth not 
cutting out to full kerf width, and hence* 
leaving a ridge on the lumber; 
although ridging is often largely 
effaced by the action of the fol¬ 
lowing teeth. 

“ Side jointing” is a corrective 

__ of irregular setting, and prevents 

« undue side-projection of any tooth 

__ = or teeth beyond the rest. It is 

2 more effective witli swaged teeth 
| than with those bent for set. 

°f The “ side file ” (Fig. 33) may 
v ^ be adjusted by the set screws to 
£ any set desired. 

Choice of a Saw. —A hand¬ 
saw must be springy and elastic, 
with almost a “Toledo blade” 
temper. There is no economy in 
buying a soft saw ; it costs more 
in a year for files and filing than 
a hard one does, dulls sooner and drives harder, 
and does not last as long. 

Frequency of Filing. —Saw teeth should 
be filed, set, and jointed frequently, and 
gummed at regular and not widely distant 






SAW-FILING. 


37 


times. The keener and more regular the teeth, 
the cleaner and easier they 
will work. 



Hand vs. Machine Fil¬ 
ing and Setting. —Hand 
filing generally has the ad¬ 
vantage of convenience in 
time and place. 



Machine filing has the 
advantage of greater regu¬ 


larity, ease, speed, and 
cheapness of work. 

Hand filing may be ren¬ 
dered more regular by the 
use of file-guides.* 


The same remarks may 


be made concerning the rel- \ V\ 
ative merits and demerits \ ^ 

of hand and machine set- \ 
ting, as in reference to hand \ 

and machine filing, f \ 

Fig. 34 is an adjustable \ 

filing guide for circular or A 

straight saws. It will file A 

/r\ 

*See “Grimsbaw on Saws,” \ ^ 


second edition, page 123. 


f For various machine saw- \ 

sets, see same work, page? 126, 127, 181. 


Fig. 30,—Round Otillct. 



38 


SAW-FILING. 


a tooth square top and bottom, or bevel point 
and square back, or square point and bevel 
back ; and will file either from right to left, or 
the reverse. 

Fig. 35 shows a filing guide, having a grad- 



Fig. 36.—Amesbury’s Band-Saw Filing Machine. 


uated circle numbered from its center each 
way, giving bevels for each side of the saw. 

Other machines for this purpose are shown 
in the larger work on Saws. 














SAW-FILING. 


39 


Fig. 30 shows an automatic band-saw filing 
machine,* which employs a spiral file in two 
sections—one to cut the faces and to feed the 
blade on, and the other to file the backs. 


Fig. 31.—Angular Gullets. 




Filing Clamps. — The screeching of saw- 
filing is proverbial, and yet unnecessary. A 
saw properly clamped and rightly filed need 

* Made by G. W. Araesbury & Co., Philadelphia. 











40 


SAW-FILING. 


not “ screech ” under the operation. The blade 
must be firmly held close to the bottoms of 
teeth, and the file held firmly against the teeth. 


m 


mm 

■I 

amt 



Fig. 33.—Side File. 


Rubber, leather, or even soft, thick paste¬ 
board between the blade and the jaws of the 




























































































































SAW-FILING. 


41 


clamp will absorb most of the vibrations, and 
render the operation more nearly noiseless. 

If a saw shake and jar while being filed, 
it will strip the file ; hence it ought to be kept 
close down to the edges of the clamps. 



Fig. 37 shows a convenient form of saw¬ 
filing clamp. 

Files. —The files used are triangular, flat or 
mill, round or gulleting, and special. 

There are many sizes of saw-files and many 
grades of coarseness of cut.* 

* These are more fully illustrated than the limits of 
this hand-book permit, in the larger work on Saws. 











SAW-FILING 



35.—Filing 


Guide 























SAW-FILING. 


43 


Many styles of special teeth are best sharp¬ 
ened with files of special section, made on 
purpose for them ; and some cannot be sharp¬ 
ened with any other than special files. 

The face of the file should be double as wide 
as the length of the tooth-face. (See Figs. 4, 
5 ). In Fig. 38 the file is somewhat too 
narrow. 

A saw file cannot well be too hard, nor too 
sharply cut. To preserve its cutting powers, 
it should not be so held and used as to strip 
the teeth against the edges of the saw tooth. 
It should not be thrown down carelessly, nor 
knocked about among other files or tools. The 
corners are particularly liable to be stripped in 
the angles between the teeth. 

“ Increment cut ” files, or those in which the 
distance between the teeth increases from 
point to heel, are claimed to work cleaner and 
easier than those in which the spacing is 
regular. 

Hand-cut files are claimed to work better 
than any machine-cut, except the “ increment ” 
toothed. 

In some cases the file is so shaped and Held as 
to sharpen the back of one tooth and the face 
of the one behind it. This frequently oc¬ 
curs with such small teeth as have no curved 


44 


SAW-FILING. 


outlines, and is especially handy where the 
angle of the gullet is 60°, as is generally the 
case where the throat is sharp-cornered. 



Fig. 37.—Saw-Filing Clamp. 


Saw files should be ‘‘float” or single cut. 
The ordinary triangular saw file is double 












SAW-FILING. 


45 


tapered—a contour not to be recommended on 
the score of either clean work or economy. 

Since, however, a taper saw file will continue 
to be demanded, it is well that it be offered in 
the best possible modification. 

One important improvement is the forma¬ 
tion of a knob or button at the top, affording 
firmer hold for the thumb and forefinger, and 
not making them sore where filing is in¬ 
frequent. Double taper files are also made 



“double ended ” or “reversible,” and these 
too are sometimes “knob-ended.” 

Band-saw files must have rounded angles so 
as to insure round throats to the teeth. (See 

Fig. 39.) 

System.—Saw filing, to be effected regu¬ 
larly, neatly and rapidly, and with minimum 
wear of files, must be gone about in a 
systematic manner, in order that no tooth may 
be omitted nor gone over twice. 


46 


SAW-FILING. 



For instance : the faces of every 
other tooth may be gone over in regu¬ 
lar succession ; then either the backs 
of those teeth, or the faces of the 
intermediates, and so on. 

The following cuts and descriptions 
will illustrate systematic filing of 
various types of hand saws. 

Fig. 40 is for metal frame saws. 

Fig. 41 is a peg tooth, with plenty 
of fleam. Mill saws and M teeth are 
sharpened about the same as this. 
i File sides 1, 5, 9 (the left of al- 
% ternate teeth), at horizontal angle, h ; 
± then opposite sides of same teeth, 2, 
| 6, 10, with reverse angle li. 

J. Then take the other teeth, and file 
from the other side of the blade, 12, 
E 8, 4 ; then 11, 7, 3. 

In Fig. 42, the file cuts a front and a 
back at once. “ Top ” the teeth, then 
file 1, 5, 9, on alternate teeth, clear 
back to the center of each tooth left 
by topping. Then take sides 2 and 3, 
6 and 7, 10 and 11 of the notches, and 
file them forward to meet the line a. 
This finishes faces 3, 7, 11. Then 
change the saw end for end, and finish 
backs 4, 8, 12. 


SAW-FILING. 


47 


Fig. 43 shows a pruning saw for green 
wood, ground thin at the back, and having no 




set. It has great amount of bevel, and cuts 
“ sweetly.” 


Fig. 41.—Peg Tooth. 







































48 


SAW-FILING. 


Fig. 44 is done witli a pit saw-file smaller 



than the gullet. First make gullets 3, 7, 11, 
very obliquely in the vertical plane ; first fil- 


FiL r . 43.—Primer for Green Wood. 




































SAW-FILING. 


49 


ing the face of one tooth, and then the back of 
the other. Then file . 
the backs of teeth 

4, 8, 12, with flat 
side of file, at an 
angle 5° to 40° with 
the edge, and 80° to 
60° with the side of 
the blade (the 5° 
and 80° being for 
the hardest woods, 
and the 40° and 60° 
for the softest). 

One common rule 
given is as follows : 

File the faces or 
fronts before the 
backs. Where the 
teeth are to be 
square, file in regu¬ 
lar succession, 1, 2, 

3, 4. 

Where there is 
“ fleam,” file 1, 3, 

5, 7 to right; 2, 4, 

6, 8 to left, etc. 

File the fronts of all teeth set from you, and 

the backs of those set towards you. 















50 


SAW-FILING. 


Circular Saw Teeth should be filed on 

the under side. 

Hints.—The first six or eight inches at the 
point of a hand rip-saw 
may be given “ cross¬ 
cut ” pitch, with which 
you can cut through 
knots without changing 
saws. 

The last teeth of 
cross-cuts may be 
rounded at the points 
to prevent tearing on 
entering and leaving. 

A sheet-steel gauge 
(Fig. 45) will show if 
a circular saw tooth is 
exactly to shape. 

A templet for making 
all the teeth of a cir¬ 
cular saw of the same 
outline, distance be¬ 
tween points, and dis¬ 
tance from the saw 
center, may be made of 
saw plate or sheet zinc, 
and used on a radial arm, as shown in Fig. 46, 
while the saw is on the arbor. 






SAW-FILING. 


51 


Where a tooth is only slightly broken off, it 



may be brought up by a crotch swage, as shown 
in Figs. 48 and 49. 

A small U gullet in the angle of teeth, as in 




SAW-FILING. 



Fig. 47 . 














































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































SAW-FILING. 


53 



Fig. 29, page 36, tends to save the file from 
stripping. 

Better file all along in three light filings, 
than do the whole of each 
edge at one cut. 

In sharpening an under¬ 
cut or a parallel tooth, 
there is danger lest the 
original shapes and sizes 
get perverted, as in Figs. 

51, 52. 

An M tooth should have 
slightly flaring sides, and 
then it may be kept in 
size and shape easily with 
a special file, cutting side 
and gullet at one operation. 

Figs. 47, 50, 53, show 
the manner of filing a 
“ Great American ” cross¬ 
cut with a special file. 

When one tooth of a 
circular saw is too short, 
it may be brought out to 
line by using the swage as 
a lever while hammering 
upon it. (See Figs. 48 and 49.) 

Referring to Fig. 54, which shows five differ- 



Figs. 48 and 49— Bringing Oitf a Short Point. 



























































-FILING 



Fig. 50. 



























































































































































































































































SAW-FILING. 55j 

ent conditions of teeth of circular rip-saw— 
that shown at A 
has nearly all the 
swaged portion bro¬ 
ken or worn off one 
side. This can be 
remedied without 
swaging, by squar¬ 
ing and filing so 
that both sides are 
alike. Tooth B has 
the cutting edge al¬ 
most square, but 
the corners are un¬ 
equal. In this case 
the file should be 
used to make both 
corners alike, as at 
C, and then the 
swage will bring 
out the points as 
at D, condensing 
the metal well into 
the corners ; but if 
the wood is very 
hard, such an out¬ 
line as either side 
of E is preferable. 



Figs. 51 and 52.—Wrong Filing. 












56 


SAW-FILING. 


In removing a circular saw from the arbor, 
when hot at the eye, it should not be leaned 



Fig. 53. 


up against any thing, else it will very likely 
get dished. Before taking a saw from the 






















































































SAW- FILING. 57 

mandrel, it should be cooled by letting it run 
a few minutes, out of the cut. ( Simonds .) 



ABODE 
Fig. 54. 


The harder the emery wheel used for gulleting 
and sharpening, the more apt it is to glaze a saw. 

Glazing, by reason of use of too hard emery 
wheels, is apt to cause checking and splitting 
of the teeth in swaging. 

Styles of Circular Saw Teeth.—Refer- 






























58 


SAW-FILING. 


at the left of Fig. 55 raking to a circle rather 
more than half the saw diameter ; and the next 
two sets, B, C, to a circle f the saw diameter. 
The softer the wood, the more rake the teeth 
may have. In two of these sets, B, C, the back 
has a separate rake rendering the teeth less 
acute than if the back was in one line. 

In Fig. 56, the rake of the left hand and 
middle sets is to a circle not quite half the saw 



Calling these styles A to G inclusive, as let¬ 
tered in the illustrations, Grandy would use 
class E for ripping hard wood in the winter, 
and C for hard wood in the summer, working 
G in the summer on every class of wood. Styles 
B, C, and F would be used for harder wood 
than if the back had no rake. 






SAW-FILING. 


50 


Style F (better with a rounder gullet) would 
be used, say 2 inches long for soft wood and If 
inches long for hard ; in the first case getting f 
pitch and in the second \ pitch. For small pow¬ 
er and light feed a shorter tooth is used than 
when sufficiency of power enables heavier feed. 

Styles H to N inclusive, Fig 57, are nearly 
all, except M, forms of ripping teeth but little 



used in soft wood ; and M is properly a cross¬ 
cutting tooth. L is a shape very common in 
England and France ; being produced entirely 
with a mill-file. M “ goes ” quickly in frosty 
weather, particularly when it strikes a knot. 

Set. —Set the tooth and not the plate of 
the saw (when bending for set). This will pre¬ 
vent the distortion and springing of the blade. 





GO 


SAW-FILING. 


and the frequent cracking natural in line lull- 
tempered cast steel blades when carelessly or 
wrongly spring-set. 

For glue-joints it is best to use a saw without 
set; and a good workman will run a winter saw 
with little or none, the back holding the blade 
stiff and square, and keeping it from springing. 
In this, its comparatively short length assists. 

It requires a first-class workman to use a 
hand-saw without set ; and, conversely, a man 
who can drive a saw surely and straight, 
without twist or buckle, tremble or varying 
pressure, can run it with little or no set, 
except in very gummy or very hard wood. 

Spring vs. Spread Set.—The C. N. Nelson 
Lumber Co., Cloquet, Minn., say : “A spring 
set with a slightly shearing tooth unquestiona¬ 
bly cuts the easiest, but as it is only the corner 
of the tooth that cuts, you will require twice 
as many teeth in a spring set as you will in a 
full swaged saw ; and as power is a secondary 
consideration in a saw-mill where fuel costs 
nothing, the full swage is generally preferred 
as being easier taken care of.” 

We must, however, take particular excep¬ 
tion to the statement that “ power is a second¬ 
ary consideration in a saw-mill, where fuel costs 
nothing.” 


SilW-FILIKG. 


01 


There are other items of expense in pro¬ 
ducing power ; the principal ones being inter¬ 
est, wear and tear, lubrication, insurance, fire¬ 
men’s wages, “boiler compound,” etc. So that 
if a given amount of work can be done with 200 
horse power, there is no use in paying for these 
items in a 250 horse “plant.” 


In order to make a cross-cut fast-cutting, it 
must have deep teeth, so as to give plenty of 
throat room to carry out the sawdust. 

One advantage in blunt end saw-files is, that 
their sides are less tapered than “ sharp-end- 
ers.” 

Cleaner Gauge.—Fig. 58 shows the cleaner 
gauge referred to on page 14, for keeping the 
cleaver teeth of a cross-cut shorter than the 
cutters, and all of a uniform length. 

Gummers.—One point of advantage of a 
rotating steel-cutter gummer over an emery 
wheel is that, whereas an inexperienced hand 
can ruin a saw by case-hardening with an emery 
wheel, such cannot be done with a steel-cutter, 
or “ burr gummer.” Most of the emery gum¬ 
mers for circulars require that the saw shall be 
taken off its arbor to be gummed ; all burr 
gummers work with the saw in position. 




62 


SAW-FILING. 


Crotch Swages.—In the manufacture of 
crotch swages, it is found that the tempering 
is a difficult matter, a good many being lost in 
this operation. The jaws 
have to be tempered very 
hard ; but if this hard tem¬ 
per run back too far there 
is a tendency for them to 
split. Just around the notch 
they must be very hard, and 
the rest must be soft and 
tough. 

It is best that crotch 
swages be fitted with a side 
guard to prevent the hand 
of the operator being injured 
by the swage slipping off the 
tooth. This guide may be 
made to serve also as an at¬ 
tachment to keep the swage 
central, or to throw it over 
so as to give the saw more 
lead on one side than on the 
other. 

The Simonds Manufac¬ 
turing Company makes a 
swage that is claimed to act 
back from the cutting edge as 




SAW-FILING. 


63 

well as at the edge, spreading them to the re¬ 
quired width without materially reducing their 
length. This, if accomplished as claimed, 
would leave the rate of reduction of saw diame¬ 
ter and increase the life of the saw. 

It is claimed to give strong substantial 
shoulders to the teeth, thus making them stand 
hard work without dropping corners, and to 
spread them about the saw on the face as on 
the top, causing the saw to cut easy, and clear 
well, and steadying it in the cut. 

In the collar are depressions serving as guides 
to keep the teeth in proper shape, by there 
being a sharp angle for summer sawing, and a 
more obtuse one for winter work. 

The question was asked in a recent issue of 
“ The Mechanical Engineer ” of New York : 

“ Suppose we have a circular saw, with teeth 
spaced as shown in Fig. 59. Will it make the 
cut easier or harder (keeping the feed per revo¬ 
lution the same) to cut out every other tooth, 
as in Fig. 60 ? ” 

To this the author made substantially the 
following reply : 

“Editors Mechanical Engineer In the 
matter of number, or distance apart, of circu¬ 
lar saw teeth, referred to by your correspond¬ 
ent ‘ Michigan,’ in your last issue, page 40, 


64 


SAW-FILING 




Figs. 59 and 00.—Spacing of Circular Saw Teeth. 


SAW-FILING. 


65 


tlie enclosed sketches show the effect of wide 
spacing by giving increased throat-room, not 
only per tooth, but in the whole saw. In Fig¬ 
ure 61 are shown parts of three properly formed 
teeth ; and the dotted rim-line gives the outer 
boundary of the throat-space. Now cutting 
out the middle tooth, as in reducing by one- 
lialf the number of teeth in the saw each tooth 
has to take double depth of cut, if the feed per 
revolution remains the same, tooth A will have 
as throat-room not only the space a , which it 
had before, and the space, b , which tooth B 
had before being cut out, but the space occu¬ 
pied by tooth B is also added to the throat- 
room of A. Thus, while it has double the cut. 



and hence removes double the kerf, it has 
three times the space to hold the sawdust, or 
rather cuttings ; for a rip-saw should mortise 



66 


SAW-FILING. 


its way through a log, and not make fine 
dust. 

“ So, within certain limits, we are gainers by 
removing every other tooth ; for instead of hav¬ 
ing to cut through the fibers twice, with a given 
feed per revolution, they are cut only once. 
That is, if the saw is 56 inches diameter and 
has 56 teeth, and the feed is 7 inches per revo¬ 
lution, each tooth will mortise deep at a cut; 
whereas, with only 28 feet, each tooth will, if 
the feed remains 7 inches per revolution, cut 
in J inch, and have more than double the space 
to hold the cuttings. 

“If, then, the saw is heated and bound be¬ 
cause of insufficient throat-room, it will be less 
liable than before to do so. 

“ But there is another thing to look at. While 
we have lessened by one-half the amount of 
power expended in cutting through the fibers, 
we have more than doubled the strain on the 
teeth, in crumbling down and wedging out the 
cuttings ; and this strain tends to break out 
the teeth-points. There would be cases where 
it would be advisable to strengthen the tooth- 
point by deepening the gullet; gradually work¬ 
ing it down at each successive gumming, until 
the outline was as shown in A, Fig. 62. This 
gives even greater gullet than the outline shown 


SAW-FILING. 


67 


in Fig. 61 ; the back and face of the tooth have 
the same rake as before, but the points are 
stronger. 

“ The question of few or many teeth in a rip¬ 
saw depends almost entirely upon the character 
of lumber being ripped ; and the feed per revo¬ 
lution should be made dependent upon the 
strength of the teeth to resist breaking, and 
the capacity of the gullet to hold the cuttings. 

In a cross-cut the conditions are different. ” 

To Straighten a Circular Saw.—Get a 
hard-wood block 12x12", bed it, on end, on 
the ground (not on the floor). Round the top 
off with, say £ inch rise. Nail up a joist at 
the back of the block, for the saw to rest on ; 
let its face be an inch below the top of the 
block. Do not use an iron anvil. 

Use a 3 or 4 lb. blacksmith’s hammer for 
saws over 50 inches ; a lighter one for smaller 
and thinner disks. 

For large saws the straight edge should be 
about -jV' thick :—say 20" long, 3£ wide in 
center, 1" at end ; the edge of the straight 
side chamfered or rounded off. 

Balance the saw on a mandrel, and apply the 
straight edge. Mark the high places with chalk. 

Have a helper to hold the saw on the block, 
and hammer on the humps, testing frequently. 


68 


SAW-FILING. 


By this means a saw may be changed from 
Tight to left handed, or vice versa. 

If the saw is rim-bound, or center-bound, it 
should be nailed between two circular boards 
each an inch larger than the disk, and sent to 
a good saw maker (preferably the one who 
made it) to be straightened and given the pro¬ 
per tension for the speed at which it is to be run. 

High places may be taken out of straight 
saws in the same way. 

Choice of a Hand-Saw.—A good hand¬ 
saw should spring regularly in proportion to its 
width and gauge ; that is, the point should 
spring more than the heel, and the curve hence 
not be a perfectly circular arc. 

If the blade is too thick for the size of the 
teeth, the saw will work stiffly. 

If the blade is not well, evenly and smoothly 
ground, it will drive hard and tend to spring. 
The thinner the gauge and narrower the 
blade, the more need for perfectly uniform 
and smooth grinding ; and, per contra , the 
smoother and more uniform the grinding, the 
thinner and narrower a saw you can use. 

The cutting edge is very often made on a 
convex curve or with a “crown ” or “breast,” 
to adapt it to the natural rocking motion of 
the hand and arm. 


SAW-FILING. 


69' 


By holding the blade in a good light, and 
tapping it, you can see if there are imperfec¬ 
tions in grinding or in hammering. 

Before buying a saw, test it on about the 
same grade of work as it is intended to be put 
to. 

It is a mistake to suppose that a saw that is 
easily filed and set is the best for use. Quite 
the reverse is true. A saw that will take a 
few more minutes and a little harder work to 
sharpen, will keep its edge and set longer 
than one that can be put in order quickly * 
and will work better in knots and hard wood. 

Comparison of Circular Saw Teeth.— 
Referring to the line of cuts showing various 
styles of teeth for circular rip-saws :— 

Style 63 cuts a smooth surface, and the duller 
the smoother, as a rule ; but takes considerably 
more power to do a given amount of work, on 
account of the friction at the sides. The cor¬ 
ners wearing off, would leave a tooth worn like 
69, which, on swaging, would be like 70, re¬ 
quiring considerable side-filing. This would 
cause the saw to wear “stunted” or obtuse, 
faster than some other styles—notably that 
shown at 68, with concave front edge and sides. 

Style 64, with long curving taper, is a modi¬ 
fication of 63, and approaches nearer to 68 ; con- 


70 


SAW-FILING. 


sequently would be somewhat better than 63 in 
the matter of power, swaging, etc. Both styles 
can be produced only as inserted teeth, and are 
practicable only in clear, hard wood, and with 
plenty of power. 



Style 65, with straight front edge and very 
short curved sides, is the most practicable form 
of swaged teeth, and is easily reproduced with 
a few blows of the swage, requiring but very 
little side-filing to keep a sharp corner, and 
giving the best possible side clearance. 

Style 66, in which the tooth has both bent 
and spread set, takes less power than any other 
style, wears the plate less, and will shift from 
my kind of timber to another. 







































SAW-FILING. 


71 


Style 67, in which there is bent set and con¬ 
siderable “ shear,” is practicable only on soft 
pine, as second growth pasture pine. Where 
the timber grows with the limbs low down, and 
is as near one way of grain as another, this 
style will cut less fuzz, and consequently take 
less power, where the tooth has stock enough 
to resist the tendency to spread sideways, or 
“ make set,” as termed by sawyers. 

Style 68, with concave front edge and short 



side curves, is about like 65 ; their capacity being 
about the same, giving 65 the preference. 

Style 71, with a “double bevel shear,” is 
totally impracticable, except in very soft water- 































































72 EMERY WHEELS. 

soaked pine, or hemlock. Of course, where 
the plate is thick enough to give strength, it 
takes less power than a tooth of style 
A on the same plate. It is better 
fitted for a cut-otf saw than for split¬ 
ting. It is used by some sawyers 
mostly for hemlock taken from the 
pond in summer time. 

E The double bevel 71 answers for 
plain triangular teeth with consid¬ 
erable hook, but for teeth like 73, 
(which have the same outline, but 
are “ rights and lefts/’) F. H. Ste¬ 
vens recommends such a bevel as 
is shown at 72, in which the bev¬ 
eled sides, as well as the back of the tooth, have 
clearance. 



Emery Wheel vs. Grindstone. — The 

emery wheel has the advantage over the grind¬ 
stone that it can be made thinner to run with 
safety, and can be run at higher speed. The 
principal objection urged against it is its heat¬ 
ing the saw. This may be obviated by using a 
water-proof wheel and running a stream of water 
directly into the cut. “ But of all the 
emery wheels used for this purpose 99 (says Mr. 




EMERY WHEELS. 


73 


T. Duncan Paret) “are used dry; there being 
but one make of wheel in the United States on 
which the use of water is recommended.” The 
same intelligent inventor and manufacturer 
writes the author as follows, as to the methods 
of running wheels : 

How to use Emery Wheels.—“ The sim¬ 
plest method by which solid emery wheels can 
be applied for saw gumming is by placing them 
on the spindle of the circular saw. The saw to 
be gummed can then be laid on the saw table, 
or supported in any convenient way. A simple 
way is to pass the end of a rope with a small 
cross stick on it through the eye of the saw, 
and thus suspend the saw so that it swings 
evenly balanced just in front of the emery 
wheel. The weight being thus carried, the 
operator only has to use his hands to guide the 
saw against the wheel. In the south and south¬ 
west, where expensive machinery is scanty, and 
where people are slow to introduce the latest 
improvements, there is a steady demand for 
saw gumming wheels all the way from 14 to 24 
inches in diameter. In the north-west, where 
the latest improvements are quickly added, re¬ 
gardless of price, nearly all the emery wheels 
used for saw-gumming are from 12 inches in 
diameter to 8 inches, none of the machines spe- 


74 


EMERY WHEELS. 


cially designed for saw gumming being intended 
to carry anything above a 12-inch wheel.” 

Sizes and Shapes of Emery Wheels.— 
Saw gumming wheels are used with the edge 
(or face) square, round, or beveled. 

The principal sizes are : 




12xi 

8xi ) 
8x| 
8 x£ ) 

lOx* ] 

12xf 

■ jin. hole. 

4 in. hole. 

10x8 J 

12xj 


12xJ 


Holes, 4 , i 
and 1 inch. 


Probably more wheels 12x|, 12x£, and 12xf 
are used, than all the other sizes together. Saw 
gumming wheels are used, however, of all sizes 
up to 24xl-|. 

While the variety of sizes as well as of shapes 
is largely dependent on the variety of saws, it 
is also greatly influenced by individual taste 
and opinion. The general preference is for bev¬ 
eled wheels, and probably J- of all sold for saw 
gumming purposes are this shape. 

In this connection the gentleman last quoted 
says: “It seems questionable whether this choice 
is wise. On page 226, 2d edition ‘ Grimshaw 
on Saws,’ it is stated that ‘ Sawdust packs in 
the side of the log and board, sometimes on 
account of the shape of the gullet.’ Now 
where a beveled wheel is used, there is too little 



EMERY WHEELS. 


75 


room at the bottom of the gullet to hold any 
sawdust, and it is forced between the saw and 
the wood. Where a round faced wheel is used, 
and a large, full, round gullet left, there is 
space for the sawdust to be accumulated and 
carried round with the saw till it leaves the log 
and drops the dust. I am therefore inclined to 
think that round faced wheels are preferable. 5 ’ 

We show herewith, in actual thickness, the 
largest and smallest usual sizes of saw gum¬ 
ming wheels made by the Tanite Co.: 




74 




















EMEKY WHEELS. 


77 


Figs. 74 and 75 are regular bevel; 76 and 77, 
half round; 78, short blunt bevel; 79, blunt 
double bevel; 80, irregular double bevel ; 81, 
double beveled from flange. 

Hardness of Emery Wheels.—The Tan- 
ite Co. makes five distinct classes for saw gum¬ 
ming ; and can so vary the quality as to suit 
all tastes. We give below a brief description of 
these classes : 

“2.” Medium hard ; preferred by J the pur¬ 
chasers ; is a fast cutting wheel, too hard for 
some, too soft for others. 

“3.” Medium soft ; same grain as class 2, 
but softer and freer cutting. 

“Pocono.” Extra soft, recommended by its 
makers, above the other grades. It is finer 
grained and softer than either 2 or 3, and is 
particularly recommended to those experienced 
practical sawyers “who know how to grind 
with a light touch, and who want a free cut¬ 
ting wheel that will not create much heat. 

“Paradise.” Same coarseness as “3,” but 
rougher, more open, and faster cutting. 

“ 5 Special.” A fine soft wheel only used on 
automatic saw gumming machines. 


BRAZING BAND SAWS. 


7 C 


Brazing Band Saws. — The gasoline 
blowpipe is the most convenient means of 
heating large-size band saws for brazing; 
but an ordinary mouth blow-pipe and oil 
lamp with a large wick makes satisfactory 
work for light band saws. 

Scarf the sides of the broken end on op¬ 
posite sides about half through, and lap 
about f to i an inch for small saws. Place 
in the lap a thin piece of coin silver, which 
flows better and is tougher than brass. 
Moisten the surfaces with borax, ground on 
a stone with water to a paste. Bind with 
small binding wire of iron ; pin to a piece 
of flat charcoal with wire clips, and heat 
with the broad flame from the blowpipe. 
Where convenient, a pair of tongs may be 
heated to a white heat and gripped upon 
the splice. Then carefully file the overlap¬ 
ping parts to an even thickness. 

For very heavy saws, a resort to riveting 
is often made to hold the scarfs together 
firmly. For good work, the solder should 
be thin and placed in the scarf with enough 
to overlap so as to fill the scarf when melted. 


SPEED OF CIRCULAR SAWS. 


79 


Speed of Circular Saws.—The speed of 
saws is very essential to the production of 
good lumber. There is a standard. A good 
sawyer will retain his speed—not a given 
standard, but as to the condition of the saw’s 
tension. The log takes the saw above or 
below the speed it is destined to run at, 
which is attended invariably by bad sawing. 
New saws should be kept up to speed by 
all means, or the saw will eventually dish 
permanently and have to be rehammered. 
A saw not up to its speed invariably runs 
from the log dishing. This will eventually 
permanently dish the saw. A sawmaker, 
when taking the order for the saw, is given 
a speed about so and so, and he, knowing 
but little better, takes it down. Now, this 
is known to vary 200 revolutions. The saw 
being hammered too open is condemned as 
defective; it won’t run because it won’t 
stand up to its work. If the sawyer had 
good judgment, he would be very particular 
about correct speed. A good sawyer will 
try to maintain the speed to suit the saw’s 
condition or hammer it. 


so 


SPEED OF CIRCULAR SAWS. 


The greatest trouble is in too high speed. 
This brings about, first, bad lumber, second, 
a spoiled saw, as there is nothing that ruins 
a saw quicker than heat on the rim and run¬ 
ning it winding across the log. A great 
many adhere to the stiffness of the saw, 
wanting a stiff saw. This is all right if 
some consideration is taken. If a saw is a 
heavy gauge, 48 to 54 inches, running at a 
slow speed, a stiff saw is all right. Such a 
man will contend for a stiff saw on any 
mill, judging from experience, but this is 
limited. 

Centrifugal force is a natural strain that 
a high speed is exposed to, and no high- 
speeded saw will stand one-half the abuse 
that a moderate-speed saw will. One thing : 
it will cut just two or three times as much 
lumber. The higher the speed, the more 
and better lumber is made. If everything 
in connection with the saw is in perfect 
condition, and capable of standing it, 11,000 
feet, or two miles, per minute on the rim is 
fast enough for most any of our mills. We 
sometimes find them running over 12,000— 


SPEED OF CIRCULAR SAWS. 81 

10,000 is suitable for the average mill; and 
if saw is ordered hammered to that speed, 
the sawyer should see that it runs very 
nearly to it. 

All saws should be as stiff at their speed 
as the metal will allow. If properly ad¬ 
justed, any saw can be made so. Saws run¬ 
ning at a high speed are liable to crack 
or check, if not hammered right, which 
few men thoroughly understand. Many 
sawmakers overlook this, and where there 
is complaint of cracked saw, too often the 
sawmaker attributes it to fire cracks, bad 
gumming, and the like, when nine times 
out of ten it is in the tension. 

Swing cut-off saws should not run over 
10,000 feet per minute, owing to their be¬ 
ing liable to fracture from being jammed or 
finished so often. A mill may be speeded 
up as it should and the saw not run well. 
This is when the saw needs hammering. 
If the sawyer can’t do it, and has not the 
tools, he should send it to where it can be 
done. Too much time is often lost work¬ 
ing with a saw needing hammering, to say 


82 


SPEED OF CIRCULAR SAWS. 


nothing of the lumber spoiled. Some saws 
have to be hammered very often, owing to 
the manner in which they are tensioned. 

A thick saw will stand a higher speed 
than a thin one ; but a rim velocity of io,- 
ooo feet per minute is as fast as a saw ever 
ought to run. A taper saw will stand a 
higher speed than an even gauge, for the 
reason that the rim is lighter, and the ex¬ 
pansion from centrifugal force will be less. 

If a saw heats in the center, give it more 
set; if it heats on the rim, either the backs 
of the teeth are too high, or the saw is cut¬ 
ting with too much feed, and it chokes. 


THE USUAL SPEEDS FOR CIRCULAR SAWS 
IN REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 


12 inch, 

3, 000 

30 inch, 

1,200 

58 inch, 

625 

16 inch, 

2,222 

34 inch, 

1,058 

60 inch, 

600 

18 inch, 

2,000 

38 inch, 

950 

62 inch, 

575 

20 inch, 

1,800 

42 inch, 

870 

64 inch, 

550 

22 inch, 

1,636 

46 inch, 

800 

66 inch, 

545 

24 inch, 

1,500 

50 inch, 

725 

68 inch, 

529 

26 inch, 

1,384 

54 inch, 

675 

70 inch, 

540 

28 inch, 

1,285 

56 inch, 

650 

72 inch, 

5 °° 


and in proportion for intermediate sizes. 

A 56-inch saw of first-class make and set, 





TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 83 

running at 625 revolutions per minute, has 
cut 116 feet of poplar and pine boards per 
minute, and from 90 to 100 feet of oak per 
minute—using about 100 horse power. 

It is estimated that in small mills, say of 
10 horse power, a single saw will cut 4,000 
feet of boards in 10 hours. In larger mills 
1,000 feet per horse power per day is not an 
uncommon product. 

How to Hammer Circular Saws.—An 

old sawyer gives the following advice on 
the care of saws : 

The saw being the life of your mill, keep 
it in good condition. The chief element of 
this is in hammering and keeping the saw 
straight and true. The former we will 
term tension, which applies to keeping the 
saw open to accommodate the centrifugal 
force applied by its speed. The latter, 
straightening, applies to keeping the plate 
true and free from lumps. Saw hammering 
is a peculiar art, and accomplished by but 
few to any degree of perfection, simply 
from the many fogy ideas advanced by men, 
some of whom boast of their twenty years’ 


81 TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 

experience. I have stood for ten years at 
the lever, watching closely every so-called 
peculiarity of the saw. 

The first thing is to straighten your saw. 
This is done on a wooden, firm, end-grain 
block or leather-padded anvil. All mill 
saws dish more or less from the log, and are 
full on that side. It is necessary to lean 
the saw until the center sags so that it will 
appear as straight as possible, then with a 
20 -inch straight-edge mark all the full 
places, watching closely just outside of the 
collar. Near the rim apply the straight¬ 
edge at right angles in several positions ; it 
is best to use, say, a 12 -inch straight-edge 
on the rim, as you can get closer to the 
teeth. Mark your saw with chalk or hard 
soap, on the rim, when you find places to 
show straight one way, but high the other 
way; make a long mark directly in line 
with the straightest way. This indicates 
a twist, and will in all cases on the rim ex¬ 
tend toward the center of the saw. When 
the 20 -inch straight-edge is applied on the 
radius (from center to rim), such a place 


TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 85 

will not show, but take the 12 -inch and ap¬ 
ply across this line, and you will find it to 
be high. If there is a twist, it will be 
higher on the extreme edge. The straight 
pene hammer must be used on such places, 
the straightway of the hammer directly on 
the straightest way of the saw, which is to¬ 
ward the center. As the extreme edge is 
the highest, nearly all the blows must be 
applied there, care being taken not to go 
too far in. A twist showing six inches is 
often removed by hammering only on the 
rim. Twisted places are sometimes found 
at the center when the saw is dished. 

Having laid off the saw, go to the block 
and strike one blow on every mark with the 
round face of the hammer, using the long 
face on the long marks. The first opera¬ 
tion may dish the saw in the other way,, 
which' if not too much, shows good work. 
Don’t rub out your marks, and when the 
other side is laid off, notice if any of the 
marks correspond ; if so, too heavy a blow 
was applied; in this way the heft of blows 
can be determined. Work on both sides of 


86 TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 

the saw, getting the rim as true as possible 
and leave it leaning a trifle to the log. This 
constitutes a straightening. If your saw’s 
tension is nearly right it will now run much 
better, but this is not always the case. I 
will add here that before attempting to 
straighten a saw as described, a careful in¬ 
spection must be made. All saws get long 
or loose on the rim by use, and it is a com¬ 
mon thing among small mills to find saws 
so loose on the rim as to form a twist or 
winding position; if not quite so loose, it 
will not be winding, but may appear nearly 
straight with the rim very flimsy, while 
the center Will be as stiff as a board. In 
short, all such saws are stiff in the center 
and will not give, and must be tensioned 
before straightening. 

This tensioning is done by stretching the 
saw nearer the center on an anvil with firm 
blows, regardless of the lumps in the saw. 
First, strike a circle line one-half way the 
radius, then two lines two inches apart be¬ 
low this, and one above, four lines in all. 
Hammer the two center lines first on both 


TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 87 

sides of the saw, but if it is very loose on 
the rim, it will often require four to six 
lines; in such cases the lines can be closer 
together. Never go nearer the rim than 
one-third the radius, and not much closer 
to the center. Keep this in view. The 
one-half way part of the saw must be the 
more open. A saw open too near the cen¬ 
ter will not run at all in many cases. After 
giving your saw some tension, nine times 
out of ten your twisted saw, to your sur¬ 
prise, will show up straight. Sometimes a 
saw gets twisted through accident; such 
saws will show the center a little loose, and 
when they do, take the twisted saw to the 
block with a long pene, as stated. High- 
speeded saws require to be more open in the 
center, many of them dishing through with 
a snap. A saw too open will heat in the 
center and crowd from the log, while a saw 
too loose on the rim will snake and assume 
a complete wind or twist when a little hot 
on the rim. In such cases the center has 
to run hot in order to get anything like 
work out of the saw. A saw too open in 


88 


TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 


the center is stiffened by hammering the 
rim, not nearer than two inches of the 
teeth; very little work on the rim will 
change a saw. When the saw has about the 
right spring, straighten it up on the block ; 
then a trial will determine its tension. If 
the saw will not screw tip true, the collar 
should be turned. If a saw is to remain on 
the mandrel, it may be papered if the col¬ 
lars dish it. 

It is very essential that unequal tension 
be corrected in a saw that runs at a high or 
even moderate speed. Not one man in 
fifty knows anything about this, to say 
nothing of how to remove it. 

Unequal tension is this: One part of the 
saw being tighter or more open than the 
other. I could write a volume on this 
important part of the saw’s life. Now, 
to remove it, and in the simplest way, 
screw the saw up on the mandrel, take 
hold of the tail of the saw with the 
right hand (if it is a right-hand mill) 
and spring the saw all you can to you, 
and at the same time apply the long 


TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 89 

straight-edge and notice closely the open¬ 
ing. Apply the straight-edge say every 
six inches, moving the saw and noticing 
the variation in light. Yon will find some 
places spring more, while others remain 
nearly to the straight-edge; mark these 
places plainly. Now go on the outside of 
the saw, having everything free, so you can 
spring the saw, except the guide pins, which 
must be close to the saw. On this side 
mark the variations as befpre. If your saw 
has a loose place, you will find that it stood 
off more on both sides at that place. A 
tight place will stand off less and alike on 
both sides. In simpler words, loose places 
appear as though the plate was very thin, 
while tight places appear thick because 
they stand closer to the straight-edge on 
both sides of the saw, loose places the far¬ 
thest away. An open place on one side 
which shows high on the other indicates a 
lump; such a saw is not true, and must be 
taken to the block and trued up. 

To remove loose places, hammer near the 
rim opposite such a place. Tight places are 


90 TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 

stretched right where they show it. For 
practical purposes, the saw should show 
very nearly the same spring all around. 
Always test both sides, and when even a 
slight variation is found it should be re¬ 
moved ; then, if the saw is too open or too 
stiff, treat the center or rim a little on the 
anvil. 

The fogy method is to always hammer a 
saw on the anvil, striking it as heavily as 
possible. When a saw requires a little 
straightening, it is mostly on the rim (the 
outlet of the saw); if this is done on the 
anvil, what is the result? Lumps partly 
beaten down, with all the tension gone; 
then the hammerer goes to the center to 
overcome just what he ought not to have 
done. A few blows on the block, and the 
saw would have retained its tension—been 
in better shape with ten times less work. 
No man can remove a twist in this way, 
directly on the rim. I have noticed over 
fifty such men, and they never get right up 
to the rim of a saw. Why? Because it 
will curl up, every time, on the anvil. 


TO HAMMER CIRCULAR SAWS. 91 

Test this with a piece of sheet iron and 
be convinced. The tinner, iron and copper¬ 
smith are sensible men; they have their 
copper or mallet hammer and a smooth 
block to straighten their work on. Why ? 
Because only a blow or two on an anvil 
would stretch it into a wind, and then they 
are done. The saw is precisely the same 
way, and it remains only a question of time 
that the saw will be unequally tensioned, 
and then it is done. A man that knows 
anything about tension in a saw will take 
care of that vital part. Take a dished saw 
that requires only a few light blows near 
the collar, on the block. What does the 
fogy do? Stretch the rim, “pulling the 
dish ” out, and a lot of other foolish things. 
A saw too open requires the rim stretched, 
but never a dished saw. Another idea is to 
hammer in lines from the center to the rim, 
only to result in tight and loose lines and to 
buckle the saw. A man of gumption ought 
to know better than this, and this is the 
cause of many fractured saws. Others’ 
theories are, that when a saw/is sprung it 


92 


HORSE POWER. 


must be sprung more to get the lump back. 
My idea is, if it is sprung it ought not to 
be, and should be gotten back without addi¬ 
tional stretching, namely : the block. 

Small saws are treated precisely as large 
ones, but much more mildly. An expert, 
changing from a thick saw to a thin one, 
invariably will strike too heavily ; great 
care must be exercised. They require but 
little tensioning, and should be stiff. Blue 
spots are treated on the block, and when 
they come back the rim should be stretched 
opposite such a place. Their appearance 
continually indicates a loose place. 

Horse Power Required to Run Circu¬ 
lar Saws.—The horse power required to 
drive circular saws doing no work, accord¬ 
ing to experiments, is represented by the 

n d 

formula: Power —- in which n is 

32,000 

the number of revolutions per minute and 
d the diameter of the saw in inches, to 
which the net power for cutting should be 

added, which is-for soft wood and 

’ 12 6 



HORSE POWER. 


93 


for hard wood. A = square feet of surface 
of lumber cut per foot in length ; C— thick¬ 
ness of kerf or cut in decimals of an inch. 

For example, a 56-inch saw running free 
at 650 revolutions per minute requires a 
650 X 56 


speed power of 


1.14 horse power ; 


32,000 

and to cut pine logs that will make an aver¬ 
age of 10 boards of 12 inches in width, the 
area of surface for 13 cuts, including edging, 
in the log for each foot in length = 13 
square feet; and if the saw cuts a kerf 
.2 of an inch wide, then for 30.,000 feet 
per day of 10 hours the amount will be 

, , , A C 

50 feet per minute. By the formula 


for pine and white wood, 13 x 2 = 26 square 
feet of board surface per foot in length and 
26 x 2 

-— = .43 x 50 = 21.5 horse power, and 

12 

26 X 2 

for hard wood 6 *- = .86 x 50 = 43 horse 

power; to each of which should be added 
1.14 horse power for the saw alone and 
enough for running intermediate shafting 
and belting. 





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